RepResenting islam in the eyes of the Self and the Other : a CRitiCal disCouRse analysis of newspapeR

Since terrorism in Indonesia was associated to Moslem extremists, news regarding Islam has been mostly associated with those two aspects. In results, the concern of researches related to Islam in media only focuses on terrorism issue. Providing this background, this research is aimed to raise the issue related to Moslems and the Chinese minority in Indonesia, specifically in the celebration of Chinese New Year 2013 which is associated with Islamic issue. The data of this research are two newspaper articles. The first article is written by a journalist working for Agence France Presse (AFP) as the foreign media. Meanwhile, the other is written by The Jakarta Post which is the national media. The pivotal theory applied in this research is Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) by Norman Fairclough. This theory comprises of two notions of analysis namely communicative event analysis and order of discourse analysis. Orientalism theory by Edward W. Said regarding the self and the other is also applied to analyze the socio-cultural context of the data. In this case, AFP represents the self, while The Jakarta Post is the other. After conducting thorough analysis, the findings disclose that the self represents Indonesian Islam negatively. In contrast, the other represents Indonesian Islam objectively


BACKGROUND
Bali Bombing I in 2002 marked the spread of news regarding Moslem extremists and terrorism in Indonesia not only in national media but also in foreign media.As a result, researches related to Islam 1 in media only focus on the issue of terrorism.To take an example, a research conducted by Akbardzadeh and Smith in 2004 brought the issue of Islam and terrorism in newspaper articles.Quantitative and qualitative methods were applied in that research.The results of the quantitative method showed that news regarding Indonesia was always related to terrorism, Bali Bombings, Jemaah Islamiyah, and Moslem extremists.Meanwhile, the results of the qualitative methods using Orientalism theory discerned that the West was regarded as the self who was portrayed as the good guy.On the other hand, Moslems were the other who was considered the bad guys.This reveals the fact that the image of Indonesian Islam has become negative due to its representation in the news.
In spite of this, other significant issues related to Islam are actually Two newspaper articles are used as the data of this research.The first news is an article titled Indonesia Islam Leaders Stir Row over Chinese New Year.This article is written by a journalist working for Agence France Presse (AFP).The second article is MUI Mixes Chinese New Year with Religion written by an Indonesian journalist working for The Jakarta Post.Since the first news is written on behalf of foreign media and the latter on behalf of national media, these data offer two perspectives regarding the same issue.It becomes important to be analyzed, for news can affect or at least influence readers' perceptions (Richardson, 2007).To put it in Hartley's words (1982), news shapes readers' reality.
More importantly, both articles are published online.Since AFP is a news agency, the first article is published by various leading newspapers in many countries such as The Straits Times in Singapore, Bangkok Times in Thailand, Global Post in the USA, Ahram Online in Egypt, Borneo Insider in Malaysia, South China Morning Post in China, IOL News in South Africa, and MENAFN News in Middle East and North Africa.It is also possible for foreigners to read the news written by The Jakarta Post online.As a result, the two articles can shape the readers' reality around the world.The image of Indonesian Islam in the worldwide is likely affected by the presences of these two articles as well.
1 Islam in this research refers to Islam in Indonesia only. 2 The term Chinese minority is used to explain the Chinese descendants who have Indonesian nationality.
The way news shapes reality cannot be separated from the fact that news is put into the category of discourse.One characteristic of discourse is to shape the world, and at the same time discourse is shaped by the world (Johnstone, 2002).In other words, the creation of discourse is influenced by what happens in the world and conversely.
Thus, I will apply the theory of critical discourse analysis (CDA) within media discourse by Norman Fairclough to analyze the data.By applying CDA supported by the theory of discourse and ideology, the concept of representation, and Orientalism theory, this research is aimed to discern the representation of Indonesian Islam depicted in the two articles concerning Chinese New Year 2013.
There are three hypotheses that will be proved after conducting thorough analysis towards the articles.Firstly, it is assumed that regardless of terrorism issue, the articles represent Indonesian Islam positively.Secondly, the identity of Indonesian Islam is constructed positively in the two articles.Lastly, the self and the other represent Indonesian Islam differently.

REpRESENTATION
The concept of representation applied in this research is taken from Stuart Hall's work.According to Hall (2001), the work of representation can be disclosed from the binary form of representation.Hall (2001) derives this concept from linguistics account particularly Saussure's idea of binary opposition that explains how meaning is created through differences.It can be illustrated using the words rich and poor in which rich can be determined rich because it is contrasted to poor.However, Derrida (cited in Hall, 2001) believes that binary opposition is not exactly neutral, for one dominates the other.In the case of rich and poor, the word rich has more positive meaning than poor since the rich is usually depicted as the dominant compared to the poor.Hall (2001) also looks upon linguistics' theories from Bakhtin that states meaning is derived from the dialogue of one with another; this meaning is created from the differences seen among the participants.
In other words, one cannot create meaning by himself.Thus, the presence of the other is significant in the dialogue.
Hall further discusses representational strategy by employing naturalization.
He believes that culture can be contested, yet nature cannot; thus, in order to be accepted, differences should be naturalized (Hall, 2001).To illustrate, there have been naturalization of the black and the white.The black are seen as the subordinate and more primitive than the latter.Those two characteristics of the black, Hall (2001) argues, have been accepted as natural characteristics of them.Because of that, the white often get more privileges than the black.
To support Hall's work, it is important to understand the concept of misrepresentations specifically marginalization.It refers to the way a dominant group misrepresents a particular group by presenting it negatively (Eriyanto, 2001).Euphemism, dysphemism, labeling, and stereotyping are employed to do marginalization (Eriyanto, 2001).Euphemism refers to the use of refined words to refine the bad actions done by the dominant group.In contrast, dysphemism employs rude words to represent the sub-ordinate group.Meanwhile, labeling deals with the offended words that are used by the dominant group to represent other groups so that the dominant gains legitimate way to punish others (Eriyanto, 2001).Last, stereotyping is to set a particular group in a typical condition.

DISCOURSE AND IDEOLOGy
According to Johnstone (2002: 2), discourse is defined as "actual instances of communication in the medium of language".She further states that discourse is both the source and the result of communication (Johnstone, 2002).To put it simply, discourse is language in use.Foucault (cited in Johnstone, 2002: 45) expands the meaning as he claims that "discourse is one of the principal activities through which ideology is circulated and reproduced".It means that ideology works behind discourse.
According to Raymond William (1995: 26), ideology stands for "the formal and conscious beliefs of a class or other social group -as in the common usage of 'ideological' to indicate general principles or theoretical positions or, as so often unfavorably, dogmas."Such type of class or group is often the dominant one that imposes their beliefs towards other groups.Clark and Ivanic (1997) add the point that ideology of a group is usually believed as the real truth, for it is constructed to be common sense.As a result, the oppressive social system seems to be natural and desirable (Johnstone, 2002).
The theory of ideology is always related to the theory of hegemony proposed by Gramsci.According to Gramsci (cited in Clark and Ivanic, 1997), hegemony refers to a leadership of a class over other classes which is gained by getting the active consent of other classes to issue policies and make decisions.Here, ideology works within hegemony to gain the active consent without using coercive actions.Usually, the dominant class circulates its ideology behind continuous news or advertisements so that other classes accept it as common sense.By this means, the hegemony of the dominant is maintained.

CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALySIS
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has to be distinguished from a mere Discourse Analysis (DA).DA aims to either analyze the subjectivity of discourse's creator or the objective reality of the discourse (Eriyanto, 2001).Meanwhile, CDA analyzes both aspects as well as criticizes it.To put in Bordieu's words (cited in Fairclough, 1995b: 56), CDA aims to reveal the causes and effects that connect "social practices in general and language in use in particular".CDA theory within media discourse proposed by Representing Islam in the Eyes of the Self and the Other, Dewi Hermawati R. 117 Norman Fairclough is mainly applied in this research.This theory includes two notions of analysis namely Analysis of Communicative Events and Order of Discourse Analysis.

ANALySIS Of COmmUNICATIVE EVENTS
Below is the diagram that marks the basic concept of the first notion of CDA.This shows three-dimensional conception of discourse which affects threedimensional method of CDA.Therefore, the first notion includes three steps (Fairclough 1995b: 97): 1. Linguistic description of language text, either spoken or written: textual analysis.

Interpretation of the relationship between the (productive and interpretative)
discursive processes and the text: discourse practice analysis.

Explanation of the relationship between the discursive processes and the social processes: socio-cultural analysis.
The first step is textual analysis that aims to discern the linguistic structure of the text.This analysis itself comprises of four sub-analyses.Firstly is the analysis of presupposition.Since news has limited space compares to other genres such as short story, the writer needs to employ presupposition in which he/she assumes that some information can be omitted because it can be found in other texts by the readers (Fairclough, 1995a).There are some ways to presuppose: using stative/implicative verbs, employing definite and possessive articles, and inserting wh-questions (Reah cited in Richardson, 2007).Attaching an adjective/noun to qualify noun phrase can also be used to presuppose meaning (Richardson, 2007).Giving a name to a particular group can presuppose meaning as well (Fairclough: 1995a).
Secondly is the analysis of representation in clause.The representation in clause can be analyzed at two levels.The first is at the vocabulary level by analyzing the use of metaphor and hyperbole (Richardson, 2007).Analyzing the metonym is another way to discern the representation at the level of vocabulary (Reisigl and Wodak cited in Richardson, 2007).The second is grammar level.Faircough (1995a) argues that this level can be analyzed by looking at the types of clauses: Action Type (SVO), Event Type (SV), State Type (SVC), Mental Process Type (senser), and Verbal Process Type (verbiage).Fairclough (1995a) also notices that nominalization can be analyzed in this level.In addition, Richardson (2007) puts his concern on truth modality expressed by using absolute category of verbs such as is and will, employing various way of hedging such as if-clause, and reducing uncertainty such as the use of could, might, would, and etc.
Thirdly is the analysis of representation in sequencing and combination clauses.The last is picture analysis based on semiotics theory.This cannot be separated from the concept of sign, signified, and signifier.Specifically, it takes the account of Barthes' Language and Myth.Sign contains not only denotative meaning which can be disclosed using its language but also connotative meaning (myth) which is analyzed using its Related to this, it is necessary to explain further regarding representing discourse (journalist's voice known as primary discourse) and represented discourse (others' voices quoted in the discourse known as secondary discourse).Ideally, journalist has to keep the boundary maintenance between primary and secondary discourses in order to differentiate them.Therefore, Fairclough (1995b) states three modes of representation: Direct Discourse (secondary discourse quoted directly), Indirect Discourse (secondary discourse presented using indirect speech), and UNSIGnaled (ID without reporting clause).Another concern is the equity and balance of the secondary discourses.
Fairclough (1995b) argues that inequity and imbalance would be achieved by dividing voices into protagonist and antagonist.
Secondly is Interdiscursivity which refers to "mixing of diverse genres, discourses, or styles associated with institutional and social meanings in a single text" (Jian-guo, 2012: 1).It is related to four elements of interdiscursivity namely genre, activity type, style, and discourses (Fairclough cited Eriyanto, 2001).To illustrate, if the genre is news, the activity type could be hard news or soft news.Meanwhile, style is the manner of interaction among the participants as well as the choice of words and terms used in the interaction (Eriyanto, 2001).Discourse in this case refers to the themes of the news.
The last step of Communicative Event Analysis is socio-cultural analysis.In this analysis, the data are put in the wider context -the socio-cultural context.The theory of Orientalism by Edward W. Said is applied in this step.Later, this theory will be explained further.

ORDER Of DISCOURSE ANALySIS
The order of discourse analysis deals with the order of discourses present in the news.This second notion comprises of two analyses namely choice relation and chain relation.Choice relation deals with the choices that are made during the production of discourse.The analysis of chain relation is based on the idea that a communicative event can be regarded as a chain of communicative events (Fairclough, 1995a).The changes of discourses while moving along the chain become the main focus of the analysis (Fairclough, 1995a).

ORIENTALISm
According to Edward W. Said, there are two important aspects of Orientalism.
The first is the geographical distinction which is determined by the line that divides two continents: Europe (the self) and Asia (the other) (Said, 1979).Second, the contrasting characteristics in which the values of the other are always against the normal values of the self (Said, 1979).Said (2002) further explained that from the perspective of the self, Islam belongs to the orient or the other.Although the comparison between Islam as a religion and the West as a region seems incompatible, Said (2002) argued that many countries with Islamic backgrounds are characterized and regarded as one entity.It is because Islam with its various societies, histories, and languages is considered backward and primitive (Said, 2002).
All various aspects of Moslem's world are reduced because of the significant hatred of the West towards Islam (Said, 2002).These reductions result in generalization towards anything related to Islam.The opinion about Islam nowadays, for instance, cannot be separated from terrorism (Said, 2002).Another concern towards Islam is its backwardness.For the West, it is a fate that Islam is subordinate to the West; therefore, modernization of Islam is necessary done by the West (Said, 2002).
Moreover, the geopolitical background of Islam pictures that Islam confronts the West through its deviant values that challenge normal values in the West (Said, 2002).This has always been the case that the West cannot accept.Therefore, Islam which is represented by the Moslems are always labeled the fundamentalist (Said, 2002).This label remains unchanged, so Islam is always associated with bad images.

mETHODS Of ANALySIS
The methods of analysis in this research are comprised of three steps.The first step is collecting the data from the newspapers' websites.Next, the data are analyzed using three levels of analysis in the theory of Critical Discourse Analysis within media discourse.The last step is to prove the hypotheses based on the findings of the analysis.

fINDINGS
Before the findings are explained in detail, I will summarize the contents of the two articles.The first article tells the refusal of Indonesians Moslems particularly the representative of MUI 5 and FPI (Front Pembela Islam) to allow Moslems joining the 5 MUI is a national council of Moslem clerics that has the support from government although it is a nongovernmental organization (Ichwan, 2005: 48).The political role of MUI in Indonesia is to issue fatwas and non legal recommendations (tausiyahs) which are the tools to bring Moslem Indonesians towards its orthodoxy (Ichwan, 2005: 46).
Representing Islam in the Eyes of the Self and the Other, Dewi Hermawati R. 121 celebration of Chinese New Year 2013 locally known as Imlek6 .They argue that the celebration is a religious celebration.In contrast, the head of the Chinese-Indonesian Youth Association disagrees with them, for he believes that the celebration is cultural.
Beside this debate, the article describes the suffering of the Chinese in Soeharto's era The findings are divided into two sections based on the notions of CDA.

Findings of Communicative Event Analysis
There are three parts of findings for the first notion.

Textual Analysis
Presupposition: First Article the methods used the discourse Naming by attaching adjective/noun to qualify nouns.From the table above, there are several subjects that are presupposed.First, the adjective top presupposes the Muslim clerical body mentioned here is the highest body in the country.In the discourse, this refers to Indonesia Ulema Council (MUI).Second, the phrase hard-line presupposes that the FPI is an extremist group, for FPI can actually be translated into English without that phrase.Third, it presupposes a youth Chinese organization locally known as ASPERTINA (Asosiasi Peranakan Tionghoa Indonesia).

the country's top
The addition of the noun youth presupposes that it is comprised of the young Chinese although the original name does not state so.Last, it is presupposed that Abdurrahman Wahid8 has strong faith in Islam, leadership quality, and political knowledge.In the first point, the choice to present Moslem using negative words has stated the characteristics of Moslems in the discourse.It is categorized as hyperbole, for those words can be syntagmatically replaced by inappropriate.The second point emphasizes the object that is affected by the action; therefore, its focus is the suffering of the Chinese.
The third point employs hedge by using if-clause while the fourth does not.It can be inferred that the fourth which is the opinion of the Chinese leader has higher degree of truth than the previous which is the opinion of Islamic leader.

Manifest Intertextuality: First Article
There are four aspects that need to be analyzed in this level: representation discourse, presupposition, negation, and metadiscourse.Since the second and third have been analyzed in the textual analysis, they will no longer be discussed.The first aspect this, the instances 10 in the discourse have been categorized as follows.The first article relies more on primary discourse, for the primary discourses take 10 instances added by 2 ambiguous instances (mixed discourses) compared to 10 instances of secondary discourses.Also, the use of ID and mixed discourses weakens the boundary maintenance of the discourse.Related to the fourth aspect, the journalist favors the voice of Chinese leader more than the Islamic leaders.It can be discerned through the findings of textual analysis in which the Moslems depicted negatively.

Manifest Intertextuality: Second Article
Below are the instances in the second article.Nevertheless, the journalist does not favor any represented discourse (secondary discourse), for she does not use inflammatory language to take side.

Interdiscursivity
Ideally, news should be delivered informatively.Nevertheless, other tones are found in the first article beside informative tone.For instance: And if it's part of a religious ritual, we must not celebrate it (line 13) The sentence above has the quality of being persuasive.Therefore, the interdiscursivity in the first article can be disclosed by looking at the style of the writing.
Similar to the first article, the second one also employs persuasive tone as in: The best attitude for a Muslim toward this event is to ignore it (line 9-10) Thus, style also used to bear the interdiscursivity in the second article.

SOCIO CULTURAL ANALySIS
In the first article, AFP as the producer is regarded as the self that represents the

Choice relation: First Article
The choice to order the discourses in the first article is illustrated as follow:

Choice relation: Second Article
The order of the second article only involves: MUI representative -Dian Nafi.
MUI representative prohibits Moslems to join Chinese New Year celebration.Meanwhile, Dian Nafi allows them.From this choice, the article does not take side, for neither MUI representative and Dian Nafi are supported.
potential to be analyzed.The issue of the Moslems and the Chinese minority 2 in Indonesia particularly regarding the celebration of Chinese New Year 2013 has been recently raised by national and foreign media.No research has been conducted to analyze this issue.Providing this background, this research aims to analyze the representation of Indonesian Islam in the news concerning Chinese New Year 2013.

diagram 1 .
Dimensions of Discourse 3 Fairclough sees the importance of local coherence relation and global text structuring in this step.The first is analyzed by referring to three types of local coherence relations proposed by Halliday: elaboration, extension, and enhancement(Fairclough, 1995a).Four basic types of cohesion which are conjunction, lexical cohesion, reference, and ellipsis are also important in this analysis(Halliday and Hasan cited in Fairclough, 1995a).The latter can be analyzed by discerning the structure of news involving headline, lead, satellites, and sometimes wrap-up.Those analyses deal with the strategy of informational structuring by positioning and giving weight to the important information.
metalanguage (Barthes cited in Hall, 2003).Below is the diagram of Language and Myth.Diagram 2. Picture and Myth 4 The second step of Communicative Event Analysis is discourse practice analysis which is based on two models of intertextuality.Firstly is Manifest Intertextuality which focuses on how other texts emerge in a text explicitly through some techniques namely representation, presupposition, negation, and metadiscourse (Fairclough cited in Eriyanto, 2001).Representation deals with journalist's choices to pick certain persons represented in the news.Presupposition, in this case, has the same point as the one explained in textual analysis.Negation is the negative version of presupposition.The last, metadiscourse is the way the journalist favors certain represented discourses.
figure is Mohammad Dian Nafi 7 as the head of al-Muayyad Islamic Boarding School who allows Moslem to do so.
Muslim clerical body (line 8) 2. The hard-line Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) (line 15) 3. the Chinese-Indonesian Youth Association (line 21) 4. Abdurrahman Wahid, an Islamic religious leader and politician (line 39) Presupposition: Second Article the methods used the discourse Using stative verbs.1.The celebration contains portions of Buddhism spiritual teachings (line 8) 2. The celebration is part of the Chinese people's way of welcoming spring (line 14) From the table above, there are two contesting opinions regarding Chinese New Year celebration.The first is the opinion of MUI representative which presupposes that the celebration is a religious celebration.Meanwhile, the second is the opinion of the head of Al-Muayyad Islamic boarding school that presupposes it is a cultural celebration.Representation in Clause: First Article the methods used the discourse Vocabulary choice 1. illogical and a sign of outdated thinking in some Islamic organizations (line 19) Using passive sentence 2. many Chinese -were killed and others tortured.(line 38) Using stative verbs 3. if it's part of a religious ritual,(line 13) 4. Chinese New Year is not a religious celebration (line 20) Clause: Second Article The Methods Used The Discourse Using Action Type 1. Surakarta's Indonesia Ulema Council (MUI) chief Zainal Arifin Adnan has prohibited Muslims (line 3-4) Using Mental Process Type 2. Mohammad Dian Nafi of the al-Muayyad Islamic boarding school in Kartasura sees nothing wrong (line 11)In the first point, the choice to use action type allows the subject to affect the object.Meanwhile, the second employs mental process type in which the senser only delivers his opinion.From this analysis, it can be discerned that MUI has more authority than Dian Nafi.Representation inSequencing and Combining Clause: First Article The Methods Used The Discourse Using forward reference 1. some Islamic leaders have ignited a religious row (line 1) 2. But ethnic Chinese leaders say such comments (line 18) Using extension for complex sentence 3. Despite the cleric's comments, a Javanese-style Lunar New Year celebration was held (line 26-27) The use of plural nouns in the first and second points shows that the first article assumes many people are involved in the debate regarding Chinese New Year celebration.From the position of clauses in the third point, it is obvious that the subclause is more important than the main clause.Thus, it emphasizes the insignificance of the Moslem clerics' comments.Moreover, from global text structure, the position of the third point marks the rebuttal towards the Moslem clerics' comment, for it is placed in the middle of the article after the refusal of the Moslems.Representation in Sequencing and Combining Clause: Second Article The Methods Used The Discourse Using reference 1.Two local Muslim figures in Surakarta (line 1) Using extension for complex sentence 2. In contrast, Mohammad Dian Nafi of the al-Muayyad Islamic boarding school in Kartasura sees nothing wrong (line 11) Different from the first article, the second article states the exact number of people engaged in the debate.The first point clearly states the number is two -that will be referred in the discourse later.The use of conjunction in the second point shows the sequence of the discourse in which the later contrasts the previous.It shows contesting opinions between Dian Nafi and MUI representative.Picture Analysis: First Article picture 1.Two Muslim women visit a Buddhist temple in Jakarta (AFP). 9The picture above is analyzed using the diagram of Language and Myth proposed by Barthes below.The importance of this diagram is the myth hidden.The language shows the denotative meaning which two female Moslems visit a Buddhist temple.The myth, in contrast, reveals that actually Moslems are not expected to go to a prayer place of other religion.Thus, this picture invalidates the headline and the clerics' comment, for those Moslems consume the celebration by visiting the temple.visit a place of prayer for other religion and secondary discourses : 0 instance Different from the first article, the second article relies more on the secondary discourse.The boundary maintenance is also low since only 2 instances using DD.
West while Islam belongs to the other.From the analyses above, specific choice of words are employed to delineate Moslems such as illogical and outdated thinking.This supports the stereotype of Islam in Orientalism which is backward.Moreover, the represented discourses are the extremists/fundamentalists (MUI and FPI) although moderate Moslems are the majority in Indonesia.This reveals the strategy of the self to spread the stereotype of Moslems, let alone the hatred feelings towards them.In contrast, the Jakarta Post as the producer of the second article is regarded as the other.The Moslems presented in the second article are the fundamentalist (MUI representative) and the moderate (Dian Nafi as the member of NU-moderate Islamic organization).These represented discourse counterattack the stereotype of Moslems in Orientalism.Therefore, the ideology of the other contests that of the self.
Soeharto -Moslem extremists -the Chinese -Soeharto -Abdurrahman Wahid -female Moslem.The presence of Soeharto pictures the suffering of the Chinese in the past.The Moslem extremists are presented to refuse the involvement of Moslem in the celebration.The Chinese, in contrast, disagrees with the Moslem extremists.Abdurrahman Wahid does not take part in the debate, for his presence only shows the end of Soeharto's regime.Last, the female Moslems are depicted visiting a Buddhist temple which is actually against the clerics' comments.It can be inferred that this choice relation does not really support the Moslem extremists since the suffering of the Chinese leads the readers to take side to them and other discourses are against the Moslem extremists.